Off-Topic :
Fairfax Underground
Welcome to Fairfax Underground, a project site designed to improve communication among residents of Fairfax County, VA. Feel free to post anything Northern Virginia residents would find interesting.
ARTists have a right to look in the encyclopedia and find something useful to think about
when i say artists i don't mean obama niggers making racist paintings for obama
i mean people who regularly paint and sell work and pay rent that way (perhaps with help of legitimately earned and awarded art grants)
Welcome to Fairfax Underground, a project site designed to improve communication among residents of Fairfax County, VA. Feel free to post anything Northern Virginia residents would find interesting.
essay help me write one
Posted by:
please if u wood
()
Date: February 10, 2013 07:45AM
HEGEL’S LECTURES ON AESTHETICS
Excerpted from Sola, Andrew. “Hegel, G. W. F. Lectures on Aesthetics.”
The Literary Encyclopedia, 2004. ©
Introduction
Why must one turn either the creation of art or the appreciation of art into a rigorous intellectual discipline? After all, isn’t art simply a luxury that we both create and appreciate in our spare time for amusement? And if art has a practical function, isn’t it merely to develop our moral faculties through the imaginative practice of putting ourselves in another’s place? Also, with respect to the continuous debates about good and bad art, doesn’t the appreciation of art simply boil down to an issue of taste anyway? When compared to reality, isn’t art simply a deceptive facsimile of it? Lastly, doesn’t art, since it springs forth from the imaginative capacities of the mind, resist any attempt to codify its rules scientifically or philosophically?
G. W. F. Hegel, in his Lectures on Aesthetics, argues that art—he means specifically architecture, sculpture, painting, music and poetry—cannot be understood to be simply an illusion, simply a means to a moral end, simply a luxury, simply an issue of taste. Indeed, art must be regarded as being as important as religion and philosophy:
[Art] only achieves its highest task when it has taken its place in the same sphere with religion and philosophy, and has become simply a mode of revealing to consciousness and bringing to utterance the Divine Nature, the deepest interests of humanity, and the most comprehensive truths of mankind. It is in works of art that nations have deposited the profoundest intuitions and ideas of their hearts; and fine art is frequently the key—with many nations there is no other—to the understanding of their wisdom and of their religion. (9)
Since it has such prestigious bedfellows and since it holds such an important place in human history, art must be studied as patiently and as laboriously as theology and philosophy are studied, and Hegel’s Lectures on Aesthetics is meant to represent such a comprehensive study. It is through studying art that we gain insight into present and past civilizations. It is through art that we understand the development of the mind and the progress of humanity itself.
Studying Art: Hegel’s Dialectical Approach
In order to respond to the various flawed views about art, Hegel turns to his dialectical method, a method that is meant to synthesize opposing viewpoints (see Course Content entry on ‘Dialectic’ if you are interested in learning more about this).
Hegel argues that there are two conventional approaches to the study of art: the empirical study of art and ‘the study of the beautiful’.
Art scholarship or the empirical study of art requires a vast knowledge about individual artists and individual works of art and also historical knowledge about the epochs in which artists produced. From such study, generalizations and rules are made and so-called theories of art are created. Hegel cites Aristotle, Horace and Longinus as examples of such art theorists whose ideas were meant to provide guidance to aspiring artists. Another type of empirical art scholarship attempts to codify good taste—“[the] arrangement and treatment, the harmony and finish of what belongs to the external aspect of a work of art” (19). The last type of art scholarship, a romantic type, attempts to do away with the generalizations, rules and laws that attempt to regulate and explain art. This view recognizes that ‘foreign’ works of art, like Indian or Chinese art and the art of law-breaking artistic ‘geniuses’ have their own validity but operate according to different formal rules.
Opposed to art scholarship is the study of the beautiful, “the wholly theoretical reflection, which [makes] an effort to understand beauty as such out of itself alone” (25). Plato represents such a thinker who believes that art must be understood in its ‘universality’ not in its ‘particularity’. Plato argued, Hegel states, that “the truth of things [does] not consist in individual good actions, true opinions, beautiful human beings or works of art, but in goodness, beauty, truth themselves” (25). The so-called Idea of the beautiful, however, is merely an abstract idea for Hegel. It lacks the concreteness of empirical art scholarship; it avoids studying individual works of art and also avoids the historical frameworks and contexts that serve to help us understand art.
Being a proponent of the dialectical method, Hegel wishes to synthesize the two dominant methods of aesthetics outlined above. “The philosophic conception of the beautiful...must contain, reconciled within it, the two extremes which have been mentioned, by combining metaphysical universality with the determinateness of real particularity” (25-26). In other words, an abstract theory of beauty must be accompanied by concrete historical examples of that theory in practice; at the same time, individual works of art must be able to be understood in their abstract universality.
Conventional Views about Art Refuted
Before moving on to an explanation of Hegel’s rejection of common views about art, it is important to stress some of his central tenets. First, Hegel invariably uses the dialectical method and the concept of mediation to synthesize conflicting and contradictory opinions about art. Crucial to the dialectical method is the concept of mediation. Art, as a mediator between the inner world of the mind and the outer world of the senses, represents an important example of mediation.
Second, Hegel insists that one must understand art as an end in itself, not a means to, say, a moral end. Regarding the philosophical study of art, Hegel says, “Philosophy has to consider its object, not, indeed, in its subjective necessity or external arrangement, classification, etc., but it has to unfold and demonstrate the object out of the necessity of its own inner nature” (14). In other words, one cannot apply external theories to art in order to understand it. It does not suffice merely to say that art can be classified according to pre-existing categories. An individual painting, for example, is not merely cubist or fauvist or surrealist, baroque or classical. Such classification, while useful to the art historian, does not deal with the content of the individual painting itself, although it may refer to a work’s formal characteristics.
Lastly, as the preceding example indicates, art cannot be simply understood through analyzing its universal formal characteristics, nor can it be simply understood in its particular content. Art, for Hegel, must present a unity of form and content, and a philosophy of art must be able to comprehend this unity.
1) Technique and Practice versus Talent and Genius
True art, Hegel argues, cannot stem from learning formal rules and procedures. Art produced in such a way avoids utilizing the ‘original activity of the mind’. Such rules also cannot say anything specific about what is the appropriate content of a work of art, except vague generalizations such as: “the theme ought to be interesting, and each individual ought to be made to speak according to his rank, age, sex and position” (30). At best, rules of art can offer ‘guidance’ to the novice but cannot create rules that will lead to ‘good art’.
Opposed to this view is that good art stems wholly from the talents of a genius. Such an artist may ignore all formal rules of art and still create terrific art. Hegel synthesizes these two opposing views, arguing:
Though the artist’s talent and genius contain a natural element [i.e. endowed at birth], yet it is essentially in need of cultivation by thought, and reflection on the mode in which it produces, as well as of practice and skill in producing. A main feature of such production is unquestionably external workmanship, inasmuch as the work of art has a purely technical side, which extends into the region of handicraft, most especially in architecture and sculpture, less so in painting and music, least of all in poetry. Skill in this comes not by inspiration, but solely by reflection, industry and practice. (32)
2) Deception in Art; Art, Mind and Mediation
Hegel continues by attacking those who argue that art relies only upon deception. Their argument is as follows: since “only what it is real and true...has power to create what is real and true” (6-7), art has a limited value to humanity. Here Hegel agrees. Art is literally a ‘dead object’ when compared to nature which is a living thing. However, the false conception is that art is supposed to mimic nature (33).
To respond, Hegel turns to the classic philosophical opposition between the inner and the outer. There is a schism between the outer, sensuous world and the inner world of thought that art reconciles: “[Art] represents even the highest ideas in sensuous form, thereby bringing [those forms] nearer to the character of natural phenomena, to the senses, and to feeling” (9). Art is a product of the mind, but it also relies on the representation of natural forms, of transitory emotions and of sensual stimulation. Operating in both worlds, it is able to mediate between the two.
But Hegel is more circumspect about the conventional duality between the inner and outer world. The common belief, Hegel says, is that ‘matter’ (a sensuous object like a stone) is actual and real, whereas a painting of a stone is not real because it cannot be picked up and thrown. Similarly, regarding the inner life, our felt emotions are real, and the representation of, say, sadness does not correspond to the real, felt emotion. Hegel argues that it is false to simply accept stones and sadness as being real, for, he writes, “Genuine reality is only to be found beyond the immediacy of feeling and of external objects” (10).
Hegel uses an analogy to explain this cryptic statement. Those who argue that art is merely deception and appearance are like those who would claim that historical narratives are ‘deceptive semblance’ because such narratives do not tell the history of ‘the whole mass of contingent matter’ that makes up real history. So, a history of World War II, no matter how thorough, since it does not relate how, say, a colony of ants in Baden-Baden constructed a new anthill in September of 1942, is deceptive for not relating such an event. Like narrative histories, however, “[Art] brings before us the eternal powers that hold dominion in history, without any such superfluity in the way of immediate sensuous presentation and its unstable semblances” (11). In other words, both our sense perception and our thought is often encumbered by ‘the chaos of accidental matter’, and art, by stripping away ‘arbitrary states, events, [and] characters,’ gives the reader or viewer an insight into the genuine reality that is beyond the immediacy of feeling and external objects.
3) The Imitation of Nature in Art
Closely related to the opinion that art is deceptive is the opinion that nature is ‘higher’ than art. For Hegel, artistic beauty is ‘higher’ than natural beauty. “The beauty of art is the beauty that is born...of the mind; and by as much as the mind and its products are higher than nature and its appearances, by so much the beauty of art is higher than the beauty of nature” (4). Nature, Hegel insists, was not created to be beautiful, although it was created to be useful. Hence, the study of nature should remain in the realm of the hard sciences, where the uses of nature can be codified, say, according to medical benefits.
Oftentimes, those who believe in the supremacy of nature over art suggest that the finest art is art that imitates nature. For Hegel, artists who try to mimic nature are performing ‘superfluous labor’ and will always fall well short of the mark (47). The reasoning, here, is obvious, for even the most realistic painting of a bunch of grapes can never be eaten. The pleasure that viewers experience when appreciating such realistic art is fleeting, like seeing the same magic trick performed over and over again. For Hegel, such an object is no longer art but a clever trick.
While as true as possible to nature, such art lacks the element of mind. Following the dialectical method, art does rely upon the representation of nature, but such a representation must travel into the mind, where it gains its universal or spiritual qualities, before it comes out again in the work of art:
Art...being the offspring of mind...continues to belong to the realm of mind, has received the baptism of the spiritual, and only represents that which has been moulded in harmony with mind. A human interest, the spiritual value which attaches to an incident, to an individual character, to an action in its plot and in its denouement, is apprehended in the work of art, and exhibited more purely and transparently than is possible on the soil of common unartistic reality. This gives the work of art a higher rank than anything produced by nature, which has not sustained this passage through the mind. (34)
The artist who attempts technical mimicry never allows the artistic content to pass through the mind; he or she has not succeeded in stripping away the arbitrary, chaotic and contingent details that only serve to confuse one’s perception of the world.
(4) Theory and Practice of Art
Hegel suggests that art is meant to satisfy ‘man’s highest needs’. But what are these needs, and, indeed, what is man? Man is a “thinking consciousness” (35), which sets him apart from nature. While nature is “immediate and single” man is something more complex. Hegel says that “[man] is like the things of nature but...[he also] is for himself, perceives himself, has ideas of himself, thinks himself, and only this is active self-realizedness” (35). Humans are natural things, but not simply natural things because we do think and perceive and since we do make objects called ‘art’.
How, then, do we obtain self-consciousness? Hegel suggests we do so in two ways: theoretically and practically. We recognize ourselves theoretically in our internal dialogues. We create an inner notion of self that we can think about both passionately and dispassionately. However, we also recognize that we are a part of the world outside of ourselves. Hegel says that we continually reduplicate ourselves in the world. Even an action as simple as throwing a stone in a pond and watching the circles that spring forth, Hegel argues, shows how we try to make the world our own. Indeed, “man [performs actions as a free subject] in order...to strip the outer world of its stubborn foreignness, and to enjoy in the shape and fashion of things a mere external reality of himself” (36).
Art represents the highest form of the process of making the outer world more like one’s self. Man’s need for art “lies, therefore, in man’s rational impulse to exalt the inner and outer world into a spiritual consciousness for himself, as an object in which he recognizes his own self” (36). Crucially, whatever form this spiritual consciousness takes—a poem, a painting, a song—is also made available to others.
(5) Art as Pedagogical Tool
When Hegel objects to art as imitation and art as deception, he implicitly speaks of the art of painting. However, regarding the moral and pedagogical functions of art, he refers to poetry. The common opinion is that “the task and aim of art [is] to bring in contact with our sense, our feeling, our inspiration, all that finds a place in the mind of man” (51). In other words, the poet is meant to evoke all that is noble, but also all that is base in humanity. Hegel opines sarcastically that these poets ‘drag the heart through the whole significance of life’. For Hegel, poetry does have this power to represent the infinite variety of experience. As such, this artistic form has infinite content. More importantly, there are many often contradictory interpretations of such poetry. “Art,” Hegel argues, “inspires men to directly opposite emotions” (53).
Some aestheticians argue that by representing the whole range of human passions and emotions, poetry shows to the reader a picture of him or herself. Seeing a specimen in severe depression, the reader is forced to reflect on that emotion and is given relief by seeing it objectively, as it were, outside of the self. When readers see any passion objectively, the power of the passion is diminished because the passion is contrasted with the self. All powerful passions that affect the individual are conquered, Hegel suggests, by having them represented objectively, for the power of a passion is that it envelopes the individual completely. As soon as it becomes a matter for objective consideration, the passion abates.
While some believe that purpose of art is to soften the passions, others argue that its purpose is instruction through entertainment. Hegel cites Horace: “ ‘Poets aim at utility and entertainment alike’ ” (56). If the formal purpose of art is to instruct, then the content “is doomed to be exhibited and expounded directly and obviously as abstract proposition, prosaic reflection, or general theorem” (56). Since Hegel argues that there must be a dialectical synthesis, a unity, between both form and content, this view suffers from one-sidedness, for the content is of secondary importance to the formal aim, which is to instruct.
If art, first, purifies and prepares the passions for moral perfection and, second, instructs the reader on how to attain moral perfection, the purpose of art must be the moral improvement of both the individual reader and humanity as a whole. Hegel takes a detour through the concept of morality in order to refute this position.
Hegel argues that the conventional view of the moral act involves a mediation between the outer world of the transitory and sensuous and the inner world of the mind. The moral act requires the process of reflection wherein the individual overcomes his or her natural passions and acts according to a noble impulse. The individual negates his or her passions and chooses to act according to higher principles. Hegel argues that modern moral philosophy always begins with this ‘fixed antithesis’ between the free and noble mind and the passionate and instinctual will (59). He says:
For, on the one side, we see man a prisoner in common reality and earthly temporality, oppressed by want and poverty, hard driven by nature, entangled in matter, in sensuous aims and their enjoyments; on the other side, he exalts himself to eternal ideals, to a realm of thought and freedom, imposes on himself a will...strips the world of its living and flourishing reality and dissolves it into abstractions, inasmuch as the mind is put upon vindicating its rights and its dignity simply be denying the rights of nature and maltreating it, thereby retaliating [against] the oppression and violence which [it] has experienced from nature. (60)
Hegel argues that it is the task of philosophy to resolve this modern contradiction between the inner and the outer. Hegel’s philosophy suggests that the resolution of this conflict is always ongoing. This is the solution that the dialectical approach offers:
All that philosophy does is furnish a reflective insight into the essence of the antithesis in as far as it shows that what constitutes truth is merely the resolution of this antithesis, and...not in the sense that the conflict and its aspects in any way are not, but in the sense that they are, in reconciliation. (60)
Indeed, Hegel’s dialectical philosophy requires an acknowledgement, first, that there is a fundamental opposition and, second, that this opposition is constantly being resolved. In no way does Hegel imply that the opposition doesn’t exist.
Returning to art, Hegel dispenses with the idea that art has a purpose outside of itself, such as to improve morality. Such a view implies that the world is not as it ought to be and should be better. For Hegel, the world always is as it ought to be in any given moment. The function of art lies in “revealing the truth in the form of sensuous artistic shape, of representing the reconciled antithesis just described, and therefore, has its purpose in itself, in the representation and revelation.” Such is the view that one must have of art—that it has its own purpose and must be judged by its own criteria.
The Three Stages of Art: Symbolic, Classical and Romantic
Having responded to some common misperceptions of art and having offered his own conception, Hegel has prepared the ground for his own study of art. There are three fundamental stages of art, which represents the ‘evolution of the art-spirit’; each of the stages corresponds to both a religious stage and an intellectual stage of development: the Symbolic (pantheism; subjective thought), the Classical (Greek polytheism; objective thought) and the Romantic (Christian monotheism; dialectical thought).
In symbolic art, natural objects are endowed with a symbolic meaning (the example Hegel gives is that a lion symbolizes strength). Hegel says that Eastern art is still “primitive” in this respect; such art “charges even the meanest objects with absolute import” (83); “it becomes bizarre, grotesque and tasteless” (83) and yet it still is endowed with “mystery and sublimity” (84). Pantheistic peoples, endowing so much power in the natural world, are infatuated with the spiritual strength of nature; therefore, they depict in art natural forms that have a spiritual significance and power. Pantheistic peoples, however, only think of themselves subjectively, as being parts of nature (animals), not as human beings. They have not acquired the ability to think about themselves objectively, as being human beings who are both part of and separate from nature.
Unlike symbolic art which is characterized by its reverence for and duplication of natural phenomena, classical art is characterized by its understanding of the importance of representing the human form in artistic works. Since the Greek gods were conceived as being men and women, albeit perfect specimens thereof, one sees in classical art “the unity of the divine and human nature” (86). For Hegel, this represents a significant development in the progression of humanity.
By breaking away from the mysticism of pantheism, the Greeks were able to partially understand themselves as being not simply natural phenomena (animals), ensnared in the chaotic and mystical movements of the natural world. Indeed, the Greeks, in their art, show that they mastered objective thought; the Greeks were able to think about themselves as creatures who could influence the world and who were not simply at the mercy of nature.
The third stage of art is the Romantic, which is accompanied by the birth of Christianity and the development of self-conscious, dialectical thinking. The Christian Trinity conveniently illustrates the synthesis of a variety of philosophical theories that Hegel has been working with throughout the Aesthetics. Hegel advocates, in the study of art, a dialectical approach that recognizes the unity of form and content, the importance of particular works of art and the importance of the general formal characteristics of certain artistic genres, and the importance of understanding the unity of universality and particularity. In the Trinity, Christians have recognized particularity (in the form of Jesus, a specific and concrete human—which equates with the empirical study of art or the study of individual works of art), universality (in the form of the Holy Spirit, the abstract entity that is in all of us and the whole world—which equates with Plato’s Idea of the Beautiful or the study of good art as such), and the dialectical unity of these opposing concepts (God who embodies both universality and particularity—which equates with Hegel’s concept of aesthetics).
It is important to note that despite the progress of art through the three stages, each stage is present in the later stage. So, characteristics of Symbolic and Classical art can still be seen in Romantic art. One must also not suppose that the specific types of art—architecture, sculpture, painting, music and poetry—are limited to a certain stage.
The Types of Art:
The Objective Arts of Architecture and Sculpture
Architecture, for Hegel, must always remain a symbolic form of art. The material that the architect uses is matter (or nature) itself—stone, wood, metal, etc. The construction of buildings shows human beings attempting to ‘disentangle’ matter from chaotic nature. In the erection of temples and churches, Hegel sees humanity attempting to realize God and a sense of community. The church “raises an enclosure round the assembly of those gathered together, as a defence against the threatening of the storm, against rain, the hurricane and wild beasts” (91). In short, architecture “[purifies] the external world, and [endows] it with symmetrical order” (91).
Like architecture, sculpture is rooted in the sensuous world because it is dependent on matter, and, hence, Hegel argues that it is objective art (i.e. it concerns itself with that which is outside of an individual’s self-reflexive thought). However, classical sculpture depicts the human form and therefore acknowledges that the human being is essentially above mere nature. However, in the immobility of the statue, Hegel sees a form of art that is not entirely ‘human’, for it is not “broken up in the play of trivialities and of passions” (92). The gods that the Greeks sculpted represent a formal unity; they do not represent the individual subjective existence of all human beings. However, in the poetry and song of the Greeks, many of these problems are resolved.
Interlude
It has been one of Hegel’s purposes to prove that the true content of art must be “human passion, action, and incident, and, in general, the wide realm of human feeling, will, and its negation” (93), not just gods or the human form. For such a theory to be grounded in both religion and philosophy, Hegel must show how religious and philosophical developments correspond with the development of new artistic forms. With the development of Christianity, God is understood as being particular and universal. Most importantly, Christianity represents the idea that it is through thought that we partake in the divine. It is through reflection and self-conscious thought that we recognize both our own particularity and our own universality (i.e. we are individuals with our own moral dilemmas, our own experience, our own ideas, but our dilemmas, experiences, emotions and ideas have also been shared by all human beings throughout time). For Hegel, human beings have both an ideal (universal) existence and a particular one; the modern arts of painting, music and poetry work with this dual existence and attempt to express this duality in their own ways.
The Subjective or Romantic Arts of Painting, Music and Poetry
As human beings begin to recognize that the gods are not entities that stand above us but that the single God is within each of us as thought, forms of art develop that acknowledge the subjective individuality of all humanity. Indeed, in these types of art, Hegel sees art liberating human beings from their attachment to mere natural existence. In this liberation, objective art—art that is restricted in its range by the chaotic arbitrariness of the natural world—becomes subjective art—art that takes as its content the whole range of human thought and emotion as well as the whole range of natural phenomena.
In painting, thought is freed from both the necessity of matter (on which architecture relies) and the necessity of spatial representation (on which sculpture relies). For Hegel, since painters use a plane surface, they free themselves from reliance on the sensuous world of chaotic matter. Of course, painters rely on the sense of sight, but not to the extent that architects and sculptors are reliant on physical matter. Furthermore, while architecture and sculpture have a limited content because of the heaviness and immobility required by their form, painting allows for a much broader content. Hegel says:
Whatever can find room in the human heart, as feeling, idea and purpose; whatever it is capable of shaping into act—all this diversity of material is capable of entering into the varied content of painting. The whole realm of particular existence, from the highest embodiment of mind down to the most isolated object of nature, finds a place here. (94)
Like painting, music frees itself from the sensuous world (even though it, of course, relies on the sense of hearing). Indeed, in music, natural objects (instruments made of wood and metal) are transformed by the human touch into sound, which for Hegel is an ideal version of matter. In music, then, Hegel sees art developing beyond the natural restrictions of architecture and sculpture.
Lastly, in poetry, Hegel sees human beings subjecting the external world of nature to the process of thought, whereas in the earlier stages of art, nature still subjected humanity to it. Hegel argues that the function of speech is to convey ideas, ideas which have power over nature. Poetry so completely subjects nature to its own devices that Hegel understands it is an unmediated form of intellectual representation. “Poetry,” Hegel argues, “is the universal art of mind which has become free of its own nature, and which is not tied to find its realization in external sensuous matter” (96). Poetry represents the apex of the development of art because it has, at last, freed the mind from the exigencies of the chaos of the natural world.
Conclusion:
Hegel argues that the mission of art is to ‘take its place with religion and philosophy...as a mode of revealing the Divine Nature to man, of giving utterance to the deepest interests, the most comprehensive truths pertaining to mankind.’ If he has done nothing else, Hegel has shown that art is of the utmost importance to mankind despite the fact that many philosophers treat it as being of lesser import—i.e. that it is merely a luxury, a deceptive illusion, a means to a moral end.
For those that argue that art is dead or in crisis today, it would be interesting to see if their concepts about art rest on some of the faulty premises that Hegel identifies in the Aesthetics (and many of those that bemoan the state of modern art still hold many of the preconceptions about art that Hegel refuted in the nineteenth century). In order to appreciate and understand art, it is important recognize that art must be understood on its own terms. As Hegel argued, it is no use to analyze a work of art using a pre-existing theory; one must recognize the unity of form and content within each work of art. Also, it is no use to analyze a work of art using exclusively either an empirical approach or a theoretical approach. A dialectical method that synthesizes the two conventional approaches, that attempts to understand a work of art according to its own terms, and that attempts to understand the unity of form and content in a work of art might still be the most sophisticated method of understanding art.
Excerpted from Sola, Andrew. “Hegel, G. W. F. Lectures on Aesthetics.”
The Literary Encyclopedia, 2004. ©
Introduction
Why must one turn either the creation of art or the appreciation of art into a rigorous intellectual discipline? After all, isn’t art simply a luxury that we both create and appreciate in our spare time for amusement? And if art has a practical function, isn’t it merely to develop our moral faculties through the imaginative practice of putting ourselves in another’s place? Also, with respect to the continuous debates about good and bad art, doesn’t the appreciation of art simply boil down to an issue of taste anyway? When compared to reality, isn’t art simply a deceptive facsimile of it? Lastly, doesn’t art, since it springs forth from the imaginative capacities of the mind, resist any attempt to codify its rules scientifically or philosophically?
G. W. F. Hegel, in his Lectures on Aesthetics, argues that art—he means specifically architecture, sculpture, painting, music and poetry—cannot be understood to be simply an illusion, simply a means to a moral end, simply a luxury, simply an issue of taste. Indeed, art must be regarded as being as important as religion and philosophy:
[Art] only achieves its highest task when it has taken its place in the same sphere with religion and philosophy, and has become simply a mode of revealing to consciousness and bringing to utterance the Divine Nature, the deepest interests of humanity, and the most comprehensive truths of mankind. It is in works of art that nations have deposited the profoundest intuitions and ideas of their hearts; and fine art is frequently the key—with many nations there is no other—to the understanding of their wisdom and of their religion. (9)
Since it has such prestigious bedfellows and since it holds such an important place in human history, art must be studied as patiently and as laboriously as theology and philosophy are studied, and Hegel’s Lectures on Aesthetics is meant to represent such a comprehensive study. It is through studying art that we gain insight into present and past civilizations. It is through art that we understand the development of the mind and the progress of humanity itself.
Studying Art: Hegel’s Dialectical Approach
In order to respond to the various flawed views about art, Hegel turns to his dialectical method, a method that is meant to synthesize opposing viewpoints (see Course Content entry on ‘Dialectic’ if you are interested in learning more about this).
Hegel argues that there are two conventional approaches to the study of art: the empirical study of art and ‘the study of the beautiful’.
Art scholarship or the empirical study of art requires a vast knowledge about individual artists and individual works of art and also historical knowledge about the epochs in which artists produced. From such study, generalizations and rules are made and so-called theories of art are created. Hegel cites Aristotle, Horace and Longinus as examples of such art theorists whose ideas were meant to provide guidance to aspiring artists. Another type of empirical art scholarship attempts to codify good taste—“[the] arrangement and treatment, the harmony and finish of what belongs to the external aspect of a work of art” (19). The last type of art scholarship, a romantic type, attempts to do away with the generalizations, rules and laws that attempt to regulate and explain art. This view recognizes that ‘foreign’ works of art, like Indian or Chinese art and the art of law-breaking artistic ‘geniuses’ have their own validity but operate according to different formal rules.
Opposed to art scholarship is the study of the beautiful, “the wholly theoretical reflection, which [makes] an effort to understand beauty as such out of itself alone” (25). Plato represents such a thinker who believes that art must be understood in its ‘universality’ not in its ‘particularity’. Plato argued, Hegel states, that “the truth of things [does] not consist in individual good actions, true opinions, beautiful human beings or works of art, but in goodness, beauty, truth themselves” (25). The so-called Idea of the beautiful, however, is merely an abstract idea for Hegel. It lacks the concreteness of empirical art scholarship; it avoids studying individual works of art and also avoids the historical frameworks and contexts that serve to help us understand art.
Being a proponent of the dialectical method, Hegel wishes to synthesize the two dominant methods of aesthetics outlined above. “The philosophic conception of the beautiful...must contain, reconciled within it, the two extremes which have been mentioned, by combining metaphysical universality with the determinateness of real particularity” (25-26). In other words, an abstract theory of beauty must be accompanied by concrete historical examples of that theory in practice; at the same time, individual works of art must be able to be understood in their abstract universality.
Conventional Views about Art Refuted
Before moving on to an explanation of Hegel’s rejection of common views about art, it is important to stress some of his central tenets. First, Hegel invariably uses the dialectical method and the concept of mediation to synthesize conflicting and contradictory opinions about art. Crucial to the dialectical method is the concept of mediation. Art, as a mediator between the inner world of the mind and the outer world of the senses, represents an important example of mediation.
Second, Hegel insists that one must understand art as an end in itself, not a means to, say, a moral end. Regarding the philosophical study of art, Hegel says, “Philosophy has to consider its object, not, indeed, in its subjective necessity or external arrangement, classification, etc., but it has to unfold and demonstrate the object out of the necessity of its own inner nature” (14). In other words, one cannot apply external theories to art in order to understand it. It does not suffice merely to say that art can be classified according to pre-existing categories. An individual painting, for example, is not merely cubist or fauvist or surrealist, baroque or classical. Such classification, while useful to the art historian, does not deal with the content of the individual painting itself, although it may refer to a work’s formal characteristics.
Lastly, as the preceding example indicates, art cannot be simply understood through analyzing its universal formal characteristics, nor can it be simply understood in its particular content. Art, for Hegel, must present a unity of form and content, and a philosophy of art must be able to comprehend this unity.
1) Technique and Practice versus Talent and Genius
True art, Hegel argues, cannot stem from learning formal rules and procedures. Art produced in such a way avoids utilizing the ‘original activity of the mind’. Such rules also cannot say anything specific about what is the appropriate content of a work of art, except vague generalizations such as: “the theme ought to be interesting, and each individual ought to be made to speak according to his rank, age, sex and position” (30). At best, rules of art can offer ‘guidance’ to the novice but cannot create rules that will lead to ‘good art’.
Opposed to this view is that good art stems wholly from the talents of a genius. Such an artist may ignore all formal rules of art and still create terrific art. Hegel synthesizes these two opposing views, arguing:
Though the artist’s talent and genius contain a natural element [i.e. endowed at birth], yet it is essentially in need of cultivation by thought, and reflection on the mode in which it produces, as well as of practice and skill in producing. A main feature of such production is unquestionably external workmanship, inasmuch as the work of art has a purely technical side, which extends into the region of handicraft, most especially in architecture and sculpture, less so in painting and music, least of all in poetry. Skill in this comes not by inspiration, but solely by reflection, industry and practice. (32)
2) Deception in Art; Art, Mind and Mediation
Hegel continues by attacking those who argue that art relies only upon deception. Their argument is as follows: since “only what it is real and true...has power to create what is real and true” (6-7), art has a limited value to humanity. Here Hegel agrees. Art is literally a ‘dead object’ when compared to nature which is a living thing. However, the false conception is that art is supposed to mimic nature (33).
To respond, Hegel turns to the classic philosophical opposition between the inner and the outer. There is a schism between the outer, sensuous world and the inner world of thought that art reconciles: “[Art] represents even the highest ideas in sensuous form, thereby bringing [those forms] nearer to the character of natural phenomena, to the senses, and to feeling” (9). Art is a product of the mind, but it also relies on the representation of natural forms, of transitory emotions and of sensual stimulation. Operating in both worlds, it is able to mediate between the two.
But Hegel is more circumspect about the conventional duality between the inner and outer world. The common belief, Hegel says, is that ‘matter’ (a sensuous object like a stone) is actual and real, whereas a painting of a stone is not real because it cannot be picked up and thrown. Similarly, regarding the inner life, our felt emotions are real, and the representation of, say, sadness does not correspond to the real, felt emotion. Hegel argues that it is false to simply accept stones and sadness as being real, for, he writes, “Genuine reality is only to be found beyond the immediacy of feeling and of external objects” (10).
Hegel uses an analogy to explain this cryptic statement. Those who argue that art is merely deception and appearance are like those who would claim that historical narratives are ‘deceptive semblance’ because such narratives do not tell the history of ‘the whole mass of contingent matter’ that makes up real history. So, a history of World War II, no matter how thorough, since it does not relate how, say, a colony of ants in Baden-Baden constructed a new anthill in September of 1942, is deceptive for not relating such an event. Like narrative histories, however, “[Art] brings before us the eternal powers that hold dominion in history, without any such superfluity in the way of immediate sensuous presentation and its unstable semblances” (11). In other words, both our sense perception and our thought is often encumbered by ‘the chaos of accidental matter’, and art, by stripping away ‘arbitrary states, events, [and] characters,’ gives the reader or viewer an insight into the genuine reality that is beyond the immediacy of feeling and external objects.
3) The Imitation of Nature in Art
Closely related to the opinion that art is deceptive is the opinion that nature is ‘higher’ than art. For Hegel, artistic beauty is ‘higher’ than natural beauty. “The beauty of art is the beauty that is born...of the mind; and by as much as the mind and its products are higher than nature and its appearances, by so much the beauty of art is higher than the beauty of nature” (4). Nature, Hegel insists, was not created to be beautiful, although it was created to be useful. Hence, the study of nature should remain in the realm of the hard sciences, where the uses of nature can be codified, say, according to medical benefits.
Oftentimes, those who believe in the supremacy of nature over art suggest that the finest art is art that imitates nature. For Hegel, artists who try to mimic nature are performing ‘superfluous labor’ and will always fall well short of the mark (47). The reasoning, here, is obvious, for even the most realistic painting of a bunch of grapes can never be eaten. The pleasure that viewers experience when appreciating such realistic art is fleeting, like seeing the same magic trick performed over and over again. For Hegel, such an object is no longer art but a clever trick.
While as true as possible to nature, such art lacks the element of mind. Following the dialectical method, art does rely upon the representation of nature, but such a representation must travel into the mind, where it gains its universal or spiritual qualities, before it comes out again in the work of art:
Art...being the offspring of mind...continues to belong to the realm of mind, has received the baptism of the spiritual, and only represents that which has been moulded in harmony with mind. A human interest, the spiritual value which attaches to an incident, to an individual character, to an action in its plot and in its denouement, is apprehended in the work of art, and exhibited more purely and transparently than is possible on the soil of common unartistic reality. This gives the work of art a higher rank than anything produced by nature, which has not sustained this passage through the mind. (34)
The artist who attempts technical mimicry never allows the artistic content to pass through the mind; he or she has not succeeded in stripping away the arbitrary, chaotic and contingent details that only serve to confuse one’s perception of the world.
(4) Theory and Practice of Art
Hegel suggests that art is meant to satisfy ‘man’s highest needs’. But what are these needs, and, indeed, what is man? Man is a “thinking consciousness” (35), which sets him apart from nature. While nature is “immediate and single” man is something more complex. Hegel says that “[man] is like the things of nature but...[he also] is for himself, perceives himself, has ideas of himself, thinks himself, and only this is active self-realizedness” (35). Humans are natural things, but not simply natural things because we do think and perceive and since we do make objects called ‘art’.
How, then, do we obtain self-consciousness? Hegel suggests we do so in two ways: theoretically and practically. We recognize ourselves theoretically in our internal dialogues. We create an inner notion of self that we can think about both passionately and dispassionately. However, we also recognize that we are a part of the world outside of ourselves. Hegel says that we continually reduplicate ourselves in the world. Even an action as simple as throwing a stone in a pond and watching the circles that spring forth, Hegel argues, shows how we try to make the world our own. Indeed, “man [performs actions as a free subject] in order...to strip the outer world of its stubborn foreignness, and to enjoy in the shape and fashion of things a mere external reality of himself” (36).
Art represents the highest form of the process of making the outer world more like one’s self. Man’s need for art “lies, therefore, in man’s rational impulse to exalt the inner and outer world into a spiritual consciousness for himself, as an object in which he recognizes his own self” (36). Crucially, whatever form this spiritual consciousness takes—a poem, a painting, a song—is also made available to others.
(5) Art as Pedagogical Tool
When Hegel objects to art as imitation and art as deception, he implicitly speaks of the art of painting. However, regarding the moral and pedagogical functions of art, he refers to poetry. The common opinion is that “the task and aim of art [is] to bring in contact with our sense, our feeling, our inspiration, all that finds a place in the mind of man” (51). In other words, the poet is meant to evoke all that is noble, but also all that is base in humanity. Hegel opines sarcastically that these poets ‘drag the heart through the whole significance of life’. For Hegel, poetry does have this power to represent the infinite variety of experience. As such, this artistic form has infinite content. More importantly, there are many often contradictory interpretations of such poetry. “Art,” Hegel argues, “inspires men to directly opposite emotions” (53).
Some aestheticians argue that by representing the whole range of human passions and emotions, poetry shows to the reader a picture of him or herself. Seeing a specimen in severe depression, the reader is forced to reflect on that emotion and is given relief by seeing it objectively, as it were, outside of the self. When readers see any passion objectively, the power of the passion is diminished because the passion is contrasted with the self. All powerful passions that affect the individual are conquered, Hegel suggests, by having them represented objectively, for the power of a passion is that it envelopes the individual completely. As soon as it becomes a matter for objective consideration, the passion abates.
While some believe that purpose of art is to soften the passions, others argue that its purpose is instruction through entertainment. Hegel cites Horace: “ ‘Poets aim at utility and entertainment alike’ ” (56). If the formal purpose of art is to instruct, then the content “is doomed to be exhibited and expounded directly and obviously as abstract proposition, prosaic reflection, or general theorem” (56). Since Hegel argues that there must be a dialectical synthesis, a unity, between both form and content, this view suffers from one-sidedness, for the content is of secondary importance to the formal aim, which is to instruct.
If art, first, purifies and prepares the passions for moral perfection and, second, instructs the reader on how to attain moral perfection, the purpose of art must be the moral improvement of both the individual reader and humanity as a whole. Hegel takes a detour through the concept of morality in order to refute this position.
Hegel argues that the conventional view of the moral act involves a mediation between the outer world of the transitory and sensuous and the inner world of the mind. The moral act requires the process of reflection wherein the individual overcomes his or her natural passions and acts according to a noble impulse. The individual negates his or her passions and chooses to act according to higher principles. Hegel argues that modern moral philosophy always begins with this ‘fixed antithesis’ between the free and noble mind and the passionate and instinctual will (59). He says:
For, on the one side, we see man a prisoner in common reality and earthly temporality, oppressed by want and poverty, hard driven by nature, entangled in matter, in sensuous aims and their enjoyments; on the other side, he exalts himself to eternal ideals, to a realm of thought and freedom, imposes on himself a will...strips the world of its living and flourishing reality and dissolves it into abstractions, inasmuch as the mind is put upon vindicating its rights and its dignity simply be denying the rights of nature and maltreating it, thereby retaliating [against] the oppression and violence which [it] has experienced from nature. (60)
Hegel argues that it is the task of philosophy to resolve this modern contradiction between the inner and the outer. Hegel’s philosophy suggests that the resolution of this conflict is always ongoing. This is the solution that the dialectical approach offers:
All that philosophy does is furnish a reflective insight into the essence of the antithesis in as far as it shows that what constitutes truth is merely the resolution of this antithesis, and...not in the sense that the conflict and its aspects in any way are not, but in the sense that they are, in reconciliation. (60)
Indeed, Hegel’s dialectical philosophy requires an acknowledgement, first, that there is a fundamental opposition and, second, that this opposition is constantly being resolved. In no way does Hegel imply that the opposition doesn’t exist.
Returning to art, Hegel dispenses with the idea that art has a purpose outside of itself, such as to improve morality. Such a view implies that the world is not as it ought to be and should be better. For Hegel, the world always is as it ought to be in any given moment. The function of art lies in “revealing the truth in the form of sensuous artistic shape, of representing the reconciled antithesis just described, and therefore, has its purpose in itself, in the representation and revelation.” Such is the view that one must have of art—that it has its own purpose and must be judged by its own criteria.
The Three Stages of Art: Symbolic, Classical and Romantic
Having responded to some common misperceptions of art and having offered his own conception, Hegel has prepared the ground for his own study of art. There are three fundamental stages of art, which represents the ‘evolution of the art-spirit’; each of the stages corresponds to both a religious stage and an intellectual stage of development: the Symbolic (pantheism; subjective thought), the Classical (Greek polytheism; objective thought) and the Romantic (Christian monotheism; dialectical thought).
In symbolic art, natural objects are endowed with a symbolic meaning (the example Hegel gives is that a lion symbolizes strength). Hegel says that Eastern art is still “primitive” in this respect; such art “charges even the meanest objects with absolute import” (83); “it becomes bizarre, grotesque and tasteless” (83) and yet it still is endowed with “mystery and sublimity” (84). Pantheistic peoples, endowing so much power in the natural world, are infatuated with the spiritual strength of nature; therefore, they depict in art natural forms that have a spiritual significance and power. Pantheistic peoples, however, only think of themselves subjectively, as being parts of nature (animals), not as human beings. They have not acquired the ability to think about themselves objectively, as being human beings who are both part of and separate from nature.
Unlike symbolic art which is characterized by its reverence for and duplication of natural phenomena, classical art is characterized by its understanding of the importance of representing the human form in artistic works. Since the Greek gods were conceived as being men and women, albeit perfect specimens thereof, one sees in classical art “the unity of the divine and human nature” (86). For Hegel, this represents a significant development in the progression of humanity.
By breaking away from the mysticism of pantheism, the Greeks were able to partially understand themselves as being not simply natural phenomena (animals), ensnared in the chaotic and mystical movements of the natural world. Indeed, the Greeks, in their art, show that they mastered objective thought; the Greeks were able to think about themselves as creatures who could influence the world and who were not simply at the mercy of nature.
The third stage of art is the Romantic, which is accompanied by the birth of Christianity and the development of self-conscious, dialectical thinking. The Christian Trinity conveniently illustrates the synthesis of a variety of philosophical theories that Hegel has been working with throughout the Aesthetics. Hegel advocates, in the study of art, a dialectical approach that recognizes the unity of form and content, the importance of particular works of art and the importance of the general formal characteristics of certain artistic genres, and the importance of understanding the unity of universality and particularity. In the Trinity, Christians have recognized particularity (in the form of Jesus, a specific and concrete human—which equates with the empirical study of art or the study of individual works of art), universality (in the form of the Holy Spirit, the abstract entity that is in all of us and the whole world—which equates with Plato’s Idea of the Beautiful or the study of good art as such), and the dialectical unity of these opposing concepts (God who embodies both universality and particularity—which equates with Hegel’s concept of aesthetics).
It is important to note that despite the progress of art through the three stages, each stage is present in the later stage. So, characteristics of Symbolic and Classical art can still be seen in Romantic art. One must also not suppose that the specific types of art—architecture, sculpture, painting, music and poetry—are limited to a certain stage.
The Types of Art:
The Objective Arts of Architecture and Sculpture
Architecture, for Hegel, must always remain a symbolic form of art. The material that the architect uses is matter (or nature) itself—stone, wood, metal, etc. The construction of buildings shows human beings attempting to ‘disentangle’ matter from chaotic nature. In the erection of temples and churches, Hegel sees humanity attempting to realize God and a sense of community. The church “raises an enclosure round the assembly of those gathered together, as a defence against the threatening of the storm, against rain, the hurricane and wild beasts” (91). In short, architecture “[purifies] the external world, and [endows] it with symmetrical order” (91).
Like architecture, sculpture is rooted in the sensuous world because it is dependent on matter, and, hence, Hegel argues that it is objective art (i.e. it concerns itself with that which is outside of an individual’s self-reflexive thought). However, classical sculpture depicts the human form and therefore acknowledges that the human being is essentially above mere nature. However, in the immobility of the statue, Hegel sees a form of art that is not entirely ‘human’, for it is not “broken up in the play of trivialities and of passions” (92). The gods that the Greeks sculpted represent a formal unity; they do not represent the individual subjective existence of all human beings. However, in the poetry and song of the Greeks, many of these problems are resolved.
Interlude
It has been one of Hegel’s purposes to prove that the true content of art must be “human passion, action, and incident, and, in general, the wide realm of human feeling, will, and its negation” (93), not just gods or the human form. For such a theory to be grounded in both religion and philosophy, Hegel must show how religious and philosophical developments correspond with the development of new artistic forms. With the development of Christianity, God is understood as being particular and universal. Most importantly, Christianity represents the idea that it is through thought that we partake in the divine. It is through reflection and self-conscious thought that we recognize both our own particularity and our own universality (i.e. we are individuals with our own moral dilemmas, our own experience, our own ideas, but our dilemmas, experiences, emotions and ideas have also been shared by all human beings throughout time). For Hegel, human beings have both an ideal (universal) existence and a particular one; the modern arts of painting, music and poetry work with this dual existence and attempt to express this duality in their own ways.
The Subjective or Romantic Arts of Painting, Music and Poetry
As human beings begin to recognize that the gods are not entities that stand above us but that the single God is within each of us as thought, forms of art develop that acknowledge the subjective individuality of all humanity. Indeed, in these types of art, Hegel sees art liberating human beings from their attachment to mere natural existence. In this liberation, objective art—art that is restricted in its range by the chaotic arbitrariness of the natural world—becomes subjective art—art that takes as its content the whole range of human thought and emotion as well as the whole range of natural phenomena.
In painting, thought is freed from both the necessity of matter (on which architecture relies) and the necessity of spatial representation (on which sculpture relies). For Hegel, since painters use a plane surface, they free themselves from reliance on the sensuous world of chaotic matter. Of course, painters rely on the sense of sight, but not to the extent that architects and sculptors are reliant on physical matter. Furthermore, while architecture and sculpture have a limited content because of the heaviness and immobility required by their form, painting allows for a much broader content. Hegel says:
Whatever can find room in the human heart, as feeling, idea and purpose; whatever it is capable of shaping into act—all this diversity of material is capable of entering into the varied content of painting. The whole realm of particular existence, from the highest embodiment of mind down to the most isolated object of nature, finds a place here. (94)
Like painting, music frees itself from the sensuous world (even though it, of course, relies on the sense of hearing). Indeed, in music, natural objects (instruments made of wood and metal) are transformed by the human touch into sound, which for Hegel is an ideal version of matter. In music, then, Hegel sees art developing beyond the natural restrictions of architecture and sculpture.
Lastly, in poetry, Hegel sees human beings subjecting the external world of nature to the process of thought, whereas in the earlier stages of art, nature still subjected humanity to it. Hegel argues that the function of speech is to convey ideas, ideas which have power over nature. Poetry so completely subjects nature to its own devices that Hegel understands it is an unmediated form of intellectual representation. “Poetry,” Hegel argues, “is the universal art of mind which has become free of its own nature, and which is not tied to find its realization in external sensuous matter” (96). Poetry represents the apex of the development of art because it has, at last, freed the mind from the exigencies of the chaos of the natural world.
Conclusion:
Hegel argues that the mission of art is to ‘take its place with religion and philosophy...as a mode of revealing the Divine Nature to man, of giving utterance to the deepest interests, the most comprehensive truths pertaining to mankind.’ If he has done nothing else, Hegel has shown that art is of the utmost importance to mankind despite the fact that many philosophers treat it as being of lesser import—i.e. that it is merely a luxury, a deceptive illusion, a means to a moral end.
For those that argue that art is dead or in crisis today, it would be interesting to see if their concepts about art rest on some of the faulty premises that Hegel identifies in the Aesthetics (and many of those that bemoan the state of modern art still hold many of the preconceptions about art that Hegel refuted in the nineteenth century). In order to appreciate and understand art, it is important recognize that art must be understood on its own terms. As Hegel argued, it is no use to analyze a work of art using a pre-existing theory; one must recognize the unity of form and content within each work of art. Also, it is no use to analyze a work of art using exclusively either an empirical approach or a theoretical approach. A dialectical method that synthesizes the two conventional approaches, that attempts to understand a work of art according to its own terms, and that attempts to understand the unity of form and content in a work of art might still be the most sophisticated method of understanding art.
Re: essay help me write one
Posted by:
Legg Mason
()
Date: February 10, 2013 02:10PM
What do you need help with? I didn't read any of that but it sure looks like an essay to me, essay!
Re: essay help me write one
Posted by:
Lompet
()
Date: November 27, 2019 12:05PM
I also need help with writing essay! It is about literature! Can you help me?
Re: essay help me write one
Posted by:
efrre
()
Date: November 27, 2019 12:37PM
gerrymanderer2 (OP) posts several lies on ffu daily - many\.10think he's a fx co gov worker who is getting paid to do it for false DNC democrat "advertising". he floods ffu with useless posts to bump down major news, posts fecal matter, mutilated bodies, child porn, foreign drug ads and sneaker ads, tells people to kill themselves and government should seize them and put them on psych pills in prison - decided by democrat gov of course, promotes kangaroo courthouse trials, gives anti-religious rants, gives satanic ritual rants, posts black males with large dicks on white young females, portends white low birth rate and fall of USA, food tampering/poisoning, and anything possible to DEMORALIZE white people on ffu. (perhaps a chinese prisoner or isis member - but definitely knowledgeable of fx co gov from the inside at times). the website operator has told him "not to post or return" which are still posted - not removed, by the sysop: not because of a political leaning but for continual illegal and gross spam along with messages that are only to demoralize if not kill others. he/she plays at financial terrorism as well: continuall reporting false financial data, and fake emergency please from (fake members of the community he makes up)
GO BACK TO THE HELL YOU CAME FROM G2
ARTists have a right to look in the encyclopedia and find something useful to think about
when i say artists i don't mean obama niggers making racist paintings for obama
i mean people who regularly paint and sell work and pay rent that way (perhaps with help of legitimately earned and awarded art grants)
Re: essay help me write one
Posted by:
Kissem
()
Date: November 28, 2019 07:07AM
Lompet Wrote:
-------------------------------------------------------
> I also need help with writing essay! It is about
> literature! Can you help me?
What exactly topic do you have? I can recommend you to ask for help your group mates or tp search some good writing service. Also you can search some ready made essay examples to gather required information, it can be quite helpful. For example check these variants from https://paperap.com/literary-classics-books-literature-free-papers/
-------------------------------------------------------
> I also need help with writing essay! It is about
> literature! Can you help me?
What exactly topic do you have? I can recommend you to ask for help your group mates or tp search some good writing service. Also you can search some ready made essay examples to gather required information, it can be quite helpful. For example check these variants from https://paperap.com/literary-classics-books-literature-free-papers/
Re: essay help me write one
Posted by:
Jeorge H Waters
()
Date: December 06, 2019 08:58AM
Of course, the choice of topics for the essay suggests certain reflections, but not those students who have absolutely no knowledge of the subject. In such cases, the only correct solution is to use academic writing services. Check the resource and specify the range of services. You will be able to get not only free consultations. but also quality essay samples on your topic.
Re: essay help me write one
Posted by:
TZ Levine
()
Date: December 06, 2019 09:08AM
Hegel's dialectic was of course integral to many philosophical arguments going forward including and especially Marx/Ingles...
Re: essay help me write one
Posted by:
Missiol
()
Date: December 09, 2019 10:43AM
My writing skills are weak so writing essays is really hard for me. I always had problems with such assignments in college. Thanks god there are such cool services like WriteMyAssignment.com which can help very fast and in any time! So if you need to order some paper for college or universtity I recommend to contact them!
Re: essay help me write one
Posted by:
Emberr
()
Date: December 20, 2019 09:14AM
Hello guys. Writing essays is very exhausting and takes so much effort. This is the reason why so many students use the help of uk essay writing service. They just don't want to waste so much time on useless writing.
Re: essay help me write one
Posted by:
Karen66
()
Date: December 26, 2019 05:11PM
I asked for help on one site, where just a lot of interesting things were written on the topic of examples of memos https://wr1ter.com/memo-examples of my essay, I first read the necessary information, then wrote them online to chat on the site, and wrote his essay. It turns out it’s not so difficult)
Re: essay help me write one
Posted by:
Dilanial
()
Date: February 02, 2020 08:52PM
As soon as I went to University, I had a girlfriend. My job as a guy was to take her on dates and adore her, which meant giving her time and money, which the student didn't have much of, and studying also took time, especially writing essays and similar papers. I went to work, of course, and eventually solved the problem by ordering to do my papers from https://domypapers.com/. The site was recommended to me by the mentor of our first year, besides, I have already used it many times and can honestly advise. On this site, I am always sure of anti-plagiarism, if the work did not meet expectations, it will be reviewed for free, besides the order was always completed on time. So I have no problems with my studies and I have enough time for a girl.
Re: essay help me write one
Posted by:
superpuperalex
()
Date: March 08, 2020 11:21AM
With each university course I have to write more essay. But the problem is that every year I go up the career ladder and I don’t have any reason to sit and look for essay for hours. I found a cool service where they write cheap essay proofreading. I I also use other services, but so far I can only recommend https://8houressay.com because I have been working with them for more than a year and trust them at the highest level. In short, if you want to buy essay quickly and not expensive, then you to these guys.
Re: essay help me write one
Posted by:
roman davis
()
Date: October 21, 2021 12:19AM
Essay writing is not a complete writing course but also it is a piece of writing and most of the students are failing in writing an essay on a general topic given by the examiner. You are supporting the students by providing them with online writing tips.
https://www.theacademicpapers.co.uk/dissertation-writing-services-uk.php
https://www.theacademicpapers.co.uk/dissertation-writing-services-uk.php
Re: essay help me write one
Posted by:
Michael William
()
Date: October 25, 2021 08:55AM
In need of professional online assignment writing service turnout to Assignments Planet for all assignment services at a cheap price.
Re: essay help me write one
Posted by:
AdamGreen
()
Date: February 11, 2022 02:59AM
So interesting news, thanks for this article. If you need any type of help with paper task from school and college - cheap research papers - read this reviews and ask for help. This writers are real professionals and can do lots of hard tasks for you.
Re: essay help me write one
Posted by:
PhilR
()
Date: August 23, 2022 12:49PM
Thanks a lot for this amazing post. I suggest having a great time at 1 deposit casino Canada. Good luck
